Young people in the labour market: Past, present, future.

Key takeaways

content: "@furlongYoungPeopleLabour2017" -file:@furlongYoungPeopleLabour2017

Reading notes

Chapter 1, Understanding the changing youth labour market

• In this book are primary interests is in the lives of young people on the ways in which they're working lives have changed between the 1980s recession and the great recession of 2008 to 2009 and it's a mediate aftermath although we begin my drawing attention to trans already merging in the preceding to decades
• Employment and the rise of precariot as a new dangerous class standing 2011 have come to dominate recent decent courses on and around employment in general and relating to youth employment more specifically
• Inducting a longer term analytic approach inspiration from the sociological practice of Norbert Elliots and it model of analyzing Society in long-term pers as Goodwill in Hughes 2011 explain Elias is sociological approach to underpin by three core kinds of question
• An orientation towards socio genetic questions for example how did this come to be?
• An orientation towards a relational questions for example and what ways are these interrelated?
• The orientation towards homines aperti for example what broader chains of interdependence are involved in this?
• The Elias socio Genesis is the long-term tease of development and transformation and social relations which go hand in hand with what she turned psychogenesis or the process sees or development and transformation in the psychology personality or habitus that accompanied such social changes to answer a socio genetic question such as how did it come to be the precarious working as the new normality the use and other groups? Requires an analysis of the changing balances of power and shifting human independencies in relation to work and employment over a long. of time
• There's a long history of labeling those who don't get engaged in socially approved versions of paid employment as outside as somewhat deviant or odds with dominant norms
• Employment in the ones dominant manufacturing Industries declined sharply from the late 1960s and in the United Kingdom today employs less than one in ten of the workforce comfort 2012 back in the 1970s fewer women were employed and many of those that were held part-time a program of privatization has significantly reduced the number of workers employed in the public sector and the final salary pension schemes which were once relatively common among salaried workers in the public sector the largely been abandoned in favor of less generous pension schemes where Returns a subject to the unpredictability of the market. Trade union membership Has Fallen sharply partly due to the decreased employment in the manufacturing Industries but also due to privatization and to increase employment in small scale service units
• There is also being an important changes in employment practice including a fall in the numbers of employed on full-time open contacts underpinned by moves to weaken that the legislation that wants helps if you're tenure and protect workers from unfair and arbitrary dismissal new contractual arrangements have been as due such as zero hour contracts for an employer makes no guarantee about the number of working hours or the pay offered while agency work and temporary work contracts have become more common while for entitlements for those without work has been reduced and conditions under which support may be claimed have become harsher poor wages also mean that many working households in the UK depend on benefits in order to achieve a minimum standard of living
• The 1980s recession is significant in that it marked a major shift in the Industrial shape of the UK many manufacturing jobs premature in The Lost and some of the new opportunities created than service sector demand for a new type of employee capable performing emotional work hock's child 1983 in which they were applied to become skilled in the use of expressions such as smiling and eye contact in their everyday dealings the clients and customers in this new world traditional masculinity's sometimes seen as redundant and even as representing an impediment to Employment in the growing sectors of the economy McDowell 2003 in the new Economy there is a much reduced demand for our own skilled industrial workers whose jobs have been either replaced by machines or exported to countries with the lower wage costs
• We are currently experiencing the aftermath of another assession the great recession and we can begin to see the Contours of the emerging post recession economy in the new order the flexible employment practices that became more widespread during the recession are retained workers experience ongoing and security before struggle multiple part-time i'm a constantly faced with uncertainty about their ability to manage financial commitments despite an increasingly qualified workforce predictions about the growth of jobs point towards the less skilled sectors of the economy meaning that people are running up large debts for education only to enter a labour market where educated workers are increasingly employed in unskilled jobs the new labour market is a stratified labor market in which the few enjoy a privilege security while the majority exists under the conditions of insecurity in the new Economy procurity is a fundamental condition to 2013 page 134 and the majority become outsiders as a part of a political strategy for our differential benefits to the favored and less favored

Chapter 2, from the 'golden age' to neo-liberalism

• Acting on behalf of employers the state introduced to wide range of measures to force workers especially young workers to the form to a new set of conditions under which worker right to welfare than fits for a progressively removed to help mobilize the neoliberal project at normalize emergent fragment and precarious forms of employment
• Examples include a speech by normal Tibet a Minister in Margaret Thatcher's government claiming that a reluctant to the part of the unemployed to get on their bikes in search of work outside their locality was evidence of a culture of welfare reliables similar Clones made by Chris greyling in the Cameron administration who are the in some families several Generations never worked while contemporary discourses acute immigrant populations of coming to the UK to clean benefits rather than o work
• Wanted to Robertson colleagues in many parts of Britain but actually all school Leaver step directly into jobs 1986 a situation that heals through the opening chapter with low levels of Geographic mobility among the young people the sorts of jobs available to them very considerably from one locality to the next as good with an O'Connor 2005 showed
• In the 1970s around 1 in 4 young people enter the apprenticeships all around one in five entered clerical occupations banks and ullah 1988 that typically involves some firm or sector specific training and offered the possibilities of a degree of career advancement Ashton and field 1976
• Most people do not experience the transition for school to work as a. of stress or it's involving them in traumatic problems of adjustment to their new position in their Adult Community rather it appears that the previous experience of the young people in their home school and peer group prepare some world fit in or just to demands impose upon them on starting work ashton and field 1976 page 12
• Moreover both Goodwood and O'Connor 2005 and vicastaff 2003 have argued that employment in this area was after more complex than previously thought with job changing frequent.s and.s employment not uncommon
• While young people frequently entered the type of employment that they had said that they had wanted while at school mesells 1970 their aspirations were clearly shaped by local opportunity structures and their position in the stratified world of the school Roberts 1975
• While relative wages of young people in the 1960s have been regarded as healthy and linked to the emergency of the teenage consumer Abrams 1959 by the late 1970s average wages for school leavers were quite low in western Newton 1983 study for example nine months after leaving school nearly 6 in 10 17 year olds were paid between 21 pounds and 30 pounds per week adjusted for inflation a point Midway through this range equates to 136 pounds which is about what a 17 year old on the minimum wage will be paid in 2414 moreover female wages were significantly lower than male ones western Newton 1983
• Although writing an early mid 1970s Ashland field were effectively describing a context that characterised the 1960s the 1973 oil crisis triggered by the organization of petroleum exporting countries opec the attempt to use their control over oil prices to enhance the economic development of their countries that were fourfold in oil prices triggering a wage price inflationary Spiral in the west the resulted in manufacturing in uncertainty and reduced production which in turn and a detrimental impact on the levels of employment
• From 1978 to 983 manufacturing output declined by 30% OS 2006 while between 1980 and 1983 a third of the manual jobs in engineering loss McGuire 1991 well the same. Increase in jobs in the service Industries The Rise was of the lower magnitude with many of the posts being created being part-time and fill maguire 1991
• The industrial changes that were occurring throughout the 1970s and which were accelerated in the 1980s recession we've been predicted in a speech made by Harold Wilson to the Labour Party conference in 1963 there was commonly referred to as the White Heat of technology speech Wilson Drew attention to the growth in youth unemployment and warned the need to develop a totally new attitude to the problem of apprenticeship of training and retraining for skill 1963 page 7 and after need to provide enhanced and more socially just education for young people so it's to prepare Britain that is going to be forged in the White Heat of this Revolution 1963 page 7
• Despite these moves in the early 1980s the UK was still a country where minimum age school leaving was extremely common and in which higher education remained on minority experience in Scotland in 1981 for example 57% of males and 52% of females left school at the minimum age and a minority obtained the five plus o-grades that will it be an indicator of a satisfactory secondary experience Furlong 1992
• As ausgaby noted the mid 19 marked by an error of crises and social polarization 1998 page 104
• The YTS scheme did not help to address social divisions and many have suggested that YTS actually served a reinforce processes of marginalization according to Cockburn 1987 YTS did little more than underpin existing patterns of sex-based national segregation with young women being heavily concentrated and YTS occupational areas associated with pairing health personal services and sales likewise the social divisions built up around race and ethnicity with the regard to Employment we're exacerbated by the scheme whereby those from ethnic minorities were often placed on poor quality programs
• Young blacks in inner London are being forced into a youth training scheme ghetto well young white from the Suburbs get most of the jobs in the city and West End according to the inner London Education Authority the figure show a much higher take up of YTS places by young Afro-Caribbean and other ethnic groups the Guardian 26th of January 1987
• By the early 1970s and many industrialized economies in the west early school leavers had lost the prospect of transitioning to permanent full-time employment with one or two lifetime employers
• In many respects the growth of non-stand was a direct consequence of government policies since 1979 and the desired who improve economic performance through deregulation and increased flexibility for employers
• There has been a 250% increase since 1979 in the number of teenagers in part-time by 1985 one in 14 ages could find only a part-time nearly half the teenagers in part-time jobs that are temporary the Times 18th of December 1986
• Drawing on later figures from the labor Force survey felsteed and colleagues 1997 shown increase in non-standard among 15 to 24 year olds between the late 1980s and early 1990s

Chapter 3, The great transformation and the punitive turn

Without a doubt the experience of leaving school and starting work was transformed during the 1970s and 1980s laying The Foundations for Contemporary education and labor market conditions harsher forms is the neoliberal project gained momentum bringing you its wake fresh civilizing offenses menel 2015 against young people

As ilyas Would remind us sociological approaches that lack of historical grounding are inevitably deficient the 1980s as we have already sealed a severe recession and political repositioning many of the current issues relating to youth unemployment and employment can be traced back to this.

Young people leaving school in the 1970s or the first cohort of the postwar. to on Mass what is now become normalized for young people protracted insecure and multi-step into the use labour market and adult life alongside what can't refers to as the gradual retrenchment of the social welfare 2008 page 80

Quoted from the sdp leader Shirley Williams is opening speech the children born in the bold years of the late 50s and early 60s the children who have been losers all along the lines they went over credit schools saw the chances of an imprenticeship or a college Place savagely cut and now moving into a label market which cannot offer them jobs they are on a danger of the coming a lost generation october 1981

Young people are increasingly demonized and blamed for their semingly inability to secure employment Clark and Willis note this tendency in the early 1980s the predominant focus of contemporary commentary and explanation on youth unemployment as being on the young people and implicitly young working class people as the problem equally government initiatives aimed solving this problem have also focus on youth and their failings 1984 page one

Davies writing in the Guardian argued that plan changes to government policies such as the removal of unemployment benefits residents that young people were being threatened with a particular punitive mix of coercion and poverty for a further year beyond the compulsory school leaving age 1982 page 9

Employment secretary Norman Tibet elaborated in the Guardian on the 22nd of June 1982 page 21 I still believe that the government's view of social security benefit of for young young students is the socially and morally correct one Tavern incentive to go on to constructive paths rather than incentive to opt out

The youth opportunities program yacht and YTS were positioned by the government as being in part about approving young people's employability rather than providing jobs thereby shifting the emphasis of blame from the economic situation and onto young people themselves

Particularly fear of the government focused on the perceived threat of civil unrest was a direct consequence of High and Rising levels of employment in the early 1980s in July 1980 the Times reported that the labor groups spokesman on educational repeated a warning that Britain was sitting on a time bomb companies were closing jobs were disappearing and the young unemployed were turning to drink drugs theft environment crime a remarkably similar discourse was also evident in 2011 through the daily taragraph online on the 6th of December 2011 youth unemployment will fuel disorder on the streets of disaffected teenagers of starved at the hope of the future the former commissioner of metropolitan police has warned looking ahead you can see there is disquiet on the streets and really concerned about youth unemployment unemployment generally concerned about signs of an increasing crime

These myths perpetuate the idea that you found employment is logic spent by the individualized deficiency of young people thereby drawing attention away from the economic causes and lack of effective remedies through policy interventions

As Roberts 2010 page 22 later argued the categorization of young people was employed unemployed or sinkers and swimmers while it's 1987 served to exemplify how dualistic language permeates youth transitions discourses which in turn often neglects those in the middle similarly by reducing our understanding of the youth labour market to dualisms we risk missing or underplaying the Shades of Grey that were actually evident in the 1980s part-time government training schemes temporary or insecure work serials contracts unrecovered registered in unemployment

Data from the 1980s surveys show the extent to which a young people in the most properous labour markets were investing in qualifications while those living in the depressed lady markets have maintained a more traditional qualification profile in which far fewer had high-level qualifications

Of those who again summary levels 46% lived in the more prosperous labour markets but less than 3 and 10 29% in the Press labor markets of those with no qualifications around half 51% lived into press load markets but just one in five 19% in prosperous labor markets

We're outcomes more dependent on labor market conditions than educational qualifications what we find is that local labour market conditions do play a key role in determining outcomes

In prosperous labor markets nearly seven in ten 68% of young people who gained over levels were in traditional forms of employment it's just over 4 and 10:44 in depressed labour markets in both labor market types qualifications conferred advantages but there are overall purchasing power strong lead condition by the local conditions

In both studies the young people were asked to reflect on the experience of the YTS respondents tended to provide mainly negative explanations for joining

In some young people living in prosperous areas were clearly privileged in both in terms of initial destinations and unlikely of the moving from insecure positions into these cure forms of employment

As Ashton and colleagues have concluded the local labour market was important to turn the neon person's chances of entering full-time and the likelihood of becoming and remaining for long.s unemployment 1986 page 104

Chapter 4, towards a new normality (UKHLS Context)

Following the 1980s recession unemployment rates did not return to pre-recession levels for 10 years spence 2011

Young people's experiences from the 1980s onwards were shaped by the expansion of Educational opportunities and by growing expectations regarding the length of participation as a result employment rate among young people continue to fall from the mid-19 add cheese to the present day especially among 16 and 17 year olds

Job creation in the aftermath of 1980s recession and again following the 1990s recession can then continue to involve shift from the manufacturing to the service sector and involved a further loss of traditional apprenticeships and the introduction of what we were to as modern apprenticeships

Very few young people now leave without completing upper Secondary Education higher education has also been transformed from elite to a mass experience

In the UK between 1984 and 2013 full-time national participation among 16 to 24 year olds increase from 1.42 to 3.03 million despite the fact that the overall youth population fell by over a million over the same period 2014

As a result young people in the Labour market in the great recession were better educated than in the previous two recessions compared to 1993 the number of 16 to 24 year olds who were graduate to doubled Bell and Blanche flour 2009 consequently the number of young people in employment Has Fallen was in 1992 nearly one in two 16 and 17 year olds 48.4 unemployment by 2011 less than one in four 16 and 17 year olds 23.5 held any form of employment the vandettel 2011 Spence 2011

On a societal level educational policies have helped limit unemployment by reducing the numbers of young people exposed to the labour market well an individual level time spent an education decreases the likelihood of unemployment and can open up Economic and Social Horizons let's be vanned 2011 note employers primarily Focus recruitment on young people with higher qualifications

Although young people today have better qualifications than they did in the 1980s or 1990s recessions there are still heavily concentrated in Low skills sectors of the economy 16 to 24 year olds more than seven and ten work in Elementary occupations so just waitressing and catering assistant and sales and customer services ONS 2014

There are all distribution of jobs for young people has been shaped by the continued decline of the manufacturing sector which declined by 17.2 between set 1979 and 2010 and the continued growth of the service sector which grew by 21.5 cent over the same. Spence 2011 which is tended to involve a growth of low skill low pay occupations

Indeed between some 2010 and the end of 2012 nearly eight and ten new jobs were in low-paid 77% TUC 2013

As a consequence there has been an increase in number of young people working in jobs Fort they are over qualified poor job prospects and qualification inflation of encourage young people to Romanian education and hope that in the long term they can access interesting jobs in the more secure sectors of the Labour market

With an increasing the number of graduates without a corresponding increase in graduate jobs it's been estimated that the UK will have a surplus of at least 50,000 a year Birchall 2009

In the UK six months after graduation at least four and 10 graduates are in Low skill forms of employment and three and a half years after graduation one in four remain in low skilled jobs Moscow and Wright 2011

The expansion of part-time employment young young people it's fueled a growth of in underemployment under which employees who would like to work full-time little option but to accept part-time jobs

Walker writing in 1997 argued that almost the entire net gain and employment since 1990 came from part-time what's 1997 page 14

Researched by the TUC 2012 and shown that since the start of the recession under employment has increased by a million and increase of 42%

After a peak of 1.25 million in the early 1980s youth unemployment fell fairly sharply until the onset of 1990s recession the 1990s procession involved a much lower peak animal rapid recovery bivann detail 2011

The pyramid beginning in the mid-8 80s and extending to the onset of the great recession has been referred to by economists as the great moderation stock and Watson 2002 this. was rise by a relative stability of business Cycles involving low levels of volatility due to a lack of physical Shocks and stable commodity prices Gordon Brown refer to it as the end of the boom and bust economy in which fluctuations and Employment and unemployment rates were much reduced

This. of utility came to an abrupt end with the global shock waves linked to the subprime loan crisis in the United States and the eclipse of institutions such as Lehman Brothers in the autumn of 2008 young people below the age of 18 Were most affected by the 2008- recession where is one in four were unemployed in the first quarter of 2008 in 2011 almost four and ten were unemployed over the same. Employment among 18 to 24 year olds Rose from just 12% to Almost 18% the peaked in unemployment associated with the 2008 and 2009 recession but very similar to those recorded in the 1980s recession r&s 20014 an unlike the 1990 procession involved an upwards drift that continued well after the recession of formerly ended

Interpretation rests on a premise of deficient labor supply at the foundation upon which most work activation of skill development programs are built for that very reason few are effective Furlong and magnesh to 2000 throughout the 1990s a number of new programs were introduced for young people the most significant landmarks were in the interruption of youth training yt launched in 1993 to replace the youth training scheme YTS modern apprenticeships and accelerated modern apprenticeships introduced in 1996 to cater respectively for 16 17 year olds and 18 to 19 year olds and the new deal for young people 1998 targeting 18 to 24 year olds unemployed for six months or more each of these programs placing the increased emphasis on skilled development

Yt a repackaged variant of YTS guarantee places for 16 17 year olds but given the withdrawal of income support promise young people it was only through accepting a placement the young people without a job had access to any form of financial support

Why t was criticized for failing to Honor its guarantee to make places available to eligible 16 to 17 year olds and timely fashion as well as for poor record in job placement and improved qualifications indeed a survey conducted in 1995 showed that up to 60% of young people who participated in the program have no qualifications on leaving independent 1995

Introduced under John majors conservative government modern apprenticeships for another attempt to provide better quality training and to address perceived deficitation and intermediate Level qualifications

Comparing modern friendships with German apprenticeships Ryan and win to 2001 argued the modern apprenticeships came closer to yt than to the German model the argument in the UK program rates have completion will relatively poor as was the bread and depth of training given that modern apprenticeships were supposedly about upskilling to NVQ level 3 only one in two levers attained that level of qualification

Fuller and unwind 2013 also voice concerned about gender segregation while the overall uptake between males and females was relatively balanced industry such as health and social care and customer service were very heavily skewed towards females 86% and 69% respectively while Engineering Construction will almost exclusively male recruiting 3% and 2% females respectively

As much Lagan argued modern friendships of a sum young people high quality opportunities by implicitly devaluing on marginalizing what is available for the less favored 1996 page 16

The new deal for young people launched in 1998 was the flagship offering of incoming Blair government upholding the work fair approach to benefits the new deal guarantee the place for all young people who had been unemployed for six months and following a. of on tailored support through a personal advisor offered the young person the mandatory option of a subsidized job placement for up to six months or a place on a full-time education of training lasting up to 12 months or a workplacement with the environmental task force for up to six months or a workplacement with the community task force lasting up to six months

Those who are reviewed one of those options were sanctioned by withdrawal of their job seekers benefits while those who participated would not pay the wage but received an allowance of the equivalent of job seekers benefit

While some evaluations of the new deal rally and young 2000 were very positive highlighting a significant reduction in long-term you appointment others were less complimentary Mick 2002 for example I'll use the unemployment was falling anyway and groups who are ineligible for the new deal also experience produced unemployment

Launched in 2011 the current flag risk ships scheme is the work program contracted out to private and third sector organizations the work program operates on a payment by results basement which has led to accusations that driven by the profit motive providers of focusing on clients who were regardless as easiest to place on marginalizing those with deep seated is it's predecessors the work program recruits participants under threat of loss of benefit being mandatory of 18 to 24 year olds who have been unemployed for nine months the work program has come in for much criticism due to its abysmal rates of job placement in its first year of operation of the 785,000 you pass through the scheme just 2.3% subsequently held a job for six months or more Murray 2012 indeed it's been argued that more people will have been sanctioned by the work program when properly employed through it Richard Whittle quoted in the Guardian Buffy 30th of June 2012

The jeopardization of Labour has been accelerated by the abdication of the state of the state from the sphere of over labor regulation through the privatisation of so-called measures and through the lens of suspicion which with which views Youth in terms of regulation old legislative protections have been strucked away whether it's been a failure to legislate to protect workers exposed to new conditions such as zero hour contracts